South Caucasian
Kartvelian
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Geographic distribution: |
South Caucasus, Anatolia |
Linguistic Classification: | One of the world's primary language families |
Subdivisions: |
Karto-Zan
Svan
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ISO 639-5: | ccs |
The South Caucasian languages (also known as Kartvelian[1]) are spoken primarily in Georgia, with smaller groups of speakers in Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia and Israel.[2] There are approximately 5.2 million speakers of this language family worldwide. It is not known to be related to any other language family in the world.[3] The first literary source in a South Caucasian language (the inscription of Abba Antoni, composed in ancient Georgian script at the Georgian monastery near Bethlehem[4]) dates back to 440 A.D.[5][4]
Contents |
The South Caucasian language family consists of four closely related languages:[1][6][7][8][9][10]
Georgian is the official language of the Republic of Georgia (spoken by 90% of the population) and the main language for literary and business use for all Kartvelian speakers in Georgia. It is written with an original and distinctive alphabet, and the oldest surviving literary text dates from the 5th century AD — the only Caucasian language that does possess an ancient literary tradition. The old Georgian script seems to have derived from Aramaic, with Greek influences.[11]
Mingrelian has been written with the Georgian alphabet since 1864, especially in the period from 1930 to 1938, when the Mingrelians enjoyed some cultural autonomy, and after 1989.
The Laz language was written chiefly between 1927 and 1937, and now again in Turkey, with the Latin alphabet. Laz, however, is disappearing as its speakers are integrating into mainstream Turkish society.
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Proto-South Caucasian | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Proto-Karto-Zan | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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Proto-Zan |
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Svan |
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Laz |
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Mingrelian |
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Georgian |
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The connection was first reported in linguistic literature by J. Güldenstädt in the 18th century, and later proven by G. Rosen, M. Brosset, F. Bopp and others during the 1840s. Laz and Mingrelian are sometimes considered dialects of a single language, called "Zan".
On the basis of glottochronological analysis, G. Klimov dates the split of the Proto-Kartvelian into Svan and Proto-Karto-Zan to the 19th century BC [10][12], and the further division into Georgian and Zan to the 8th century BC[12], although with the reservation that such dating is very preliminary and substantial further study is required.[10]
No relationship with other languages has been demonstrated so far, not even with the two North Caucasian language families, due to the lack of sound correspondences between the South and North Caucasian families.[11] Some linguists have proposed that the Kartvelian family is part of a much larger Nostratic language family, but both the concept of a Nostratic family and Georgian's relation thereto are in doubt.
Certain grammatical similarities with Basque, especially in the case system, have often been pointed out. However, these theories, which also tend to link the Caucasian languages with other non-Indo-European and non-Semitic languages of the Near East of ancient times, are generally considered to lack conclusive evidence and must therefore be deemed purely hypothetical[11].
Any similarities to other linguistic phyla may be due to areal influences. Heavy borrowing in both directions (i.e. from North Caucasian to South Caucasian and vice versa) has been observed: therefore it is likely that certain grammatical features have been influenced as well. If the Dené-Caucasian hypothesis, which attempts to link Basque, Burushaski, the North Caucasian families and other phyla, is correct, then the similarities to Basque may also be due to these influences, however indirect. Certain Kartvelian-Indo-European lexical links are revealed at the protolanguage level.[13], which are ascribed to the early contacts between Proto-Kartvelian and Proto-Indo-European populations.[14]
Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan | |
---|---|---|---|---|
*ა [ɑ] |
*a [ɑ] |
a [ɑ] |
o [ɔ] |
a [ɑ] |
*ე [ɛ] |
*e [ɛ] |
e [ɛ] |
a [ɑ] |
e [ɛ] |
*ი [i] |
*i [i] |
i [i] |
i [i] |
i [i] |
*ო [ɔ] |
*o [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
o [ɔ] |
*უ [u] |
*u [u] |
u [u] |
u [u] |
u [u] |
Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan | |
---|---|---|---|---|
*ბ [b] |
*b [b] |
b [b] |
b [b] |
b [b] |
*პ [pʼ] |
*ṗ [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
ṗ [pʼ] |
*ფ [p] |
*p [p] |
p [p] |
p [p] |
p [p] |
*გ [ɡ] |
*g [ɡ] |
g [ɡ] |
g [ɡ] |
g / ǯ [ɡ] / [d͡ʒ] |
*კ [kʼ] |
*ḳ [kʼ] |
ḳ [kʼ] |
ḳ [kʼ] |
ḳ / č' [kʼ] / [t͡ʃʼ] |
*ქ [k] |
*k [k] |
k [k] |
k [k] |
k / č [k] / [t͡ʃ] |
*დ [d] |
*d [d] |
d [d] |
d [d] |
d [d] |
*ტ [tʼ] |
*ṭ [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
ṭ [tʼ] |
*თ [t] |
*t [t] |
t [t] |
t [t] |
t [t] |
*ზ [z] |
*z [z] |
z [z] |
z [z] |
z [z] |
*ზ₁ [ʐ] |
*z₁ [ʐ] |
z [z] |
ž [ʒ] |
ž [ʒ] |
*ს [s] |
*s [s] |
s [s] |
s [s] |
s [s] |
*ს₁ [ʂ] |
*s₁ [ʂ] |
s [s] |
š [ʃ] |
š [ʃ] |
*შ [ʃ] |
*š [ʃ] |
š [ʃ] |
šk / sk [ʃk] / [sk] |
šg / sg [ʃɡ] / [sɡ] |
*ც [t͡s] |
*c [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
c [t͡s] |
*ც₁ [t͡ʂ] |
*c₁ [t͡ʂ] |
c [t͡s] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
*ჩ [t͡ʃ] |
*č [t͡ʃ] |
č [t͡ʃ] |
čk [t͡ʃk] |
čk / šg [t͡ʃk] / [ʃɡ] |
*ძ [d͡z] |
*ʒ [d͡z] |
ʒ [d͡z] |
ʒ [d͡z] |
ʒ / z [d͡z] / [z] |
*ძ₁ [d͡ʐ] |
*ʒ₁ [d͡ʐ] |
ʒ [d͡z] |
ǯ [d͡ʒ] |
ǯ / ž [d͡ʒ] / [ʒ] |
*ჯ [d͡ʒ] |
*ǯ [d͡ʒ] |
ǯ [d͡ʒ] |
ǯg / ʒg [d͡ʒɡ] / [d͡zɡ] |
ǯg / sg [d͡ʒɡ] / [sɡ] |
*წ [t͡sʼ] |
*ċ [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
*წ₁ [t͡ʂʼ] |
*ċ₁ [t͡ʂʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
*ჭ [t͡ʃʼ] |
*čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] |
čʼḳ / ċḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [t͡sʼkʼ] |
čʼḳ / šḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [ʃkʼ] |
*ღ [ɣ] |
*ɣ [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
ɣ [ɣ] |
*ყ [qʼ] |
*qʼ [qʼ] |
qʼ [qʼ] |
qʼ / ʔ / ḳ [qʼ] / [ʔ] / [kʼ] |
qʼ [qʼ] |
*ხ [x] |
*x [x] |
x [x] |
x [x] |
x [x] |
*ჴ [q] |
*q [q] |
x [x] |
x [x] |
q [q] |
*უ̂ [w] |
*w [w] |
v [v] |
v [v] |
w [w] |
*რ [r] |
*r [r] |
r [r] |
r [r] |
r [r] |
*ლ [l] |
*l [l] |
l [l] |
l [l] |
l [l] |
*მ [m] |
*m [m] |
m [m] |
m [m] |
m [m] |
*ნ [n] |
*n [n] |
n [n] |
n [n] |
n [n] |
*ლʿ [ɬ] |
*lʿ [ɬ] |
s [s] |
∅ [∅] |
l [l] |
*ლʼ [t͡ɬʼ] |
*ɬʼ [t͡ɬʼ] |
ċ [t͡sʼ] |
č' [t͡ʃʼ] |
h [h] |
The South Caucasian languages classify objects as intelligent ("who"-class) and unintelligent ("what"-class) beings. Grammatical gender does not exist.
Concrete | Abstract | ||
Animate | Inanimate | ||
Human and "human-like" beings (e.g. God, deities, angels) | Animals | Inanimate physical entities | Abstract objects |
Intelligent | Unintelligent | ||
"who"-class | "what"-class |
Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
Nominative | -i | -i/-e | -i | -i | -ep-i | -ep-e | -eb-i | -är | |
Ergative | -k | -k | -ma | -d | -ep-k | -epe-k | -eb-ma | -är-d | |
Dative | -s | -s | -s | -s | -ep-s | -epe-s | -eb-s | -är-s | |
Genitive | -iš | -iš | -is | -iš | -ep-iš | -epe-š | -eb-is | -are-š | |
Lative | -iša | -iša | n/a | n/a | -ep-iša | -epe-ša | n/a | n/a | |
Ablative | -iše | -iše | n/a | n/a | -ep-iše | -epe-še | n/a | n/a | |
Instrumental | -it | -ite | -it | -šw | -ep-it | -epe-te | -eb-it | -är-šw | |
Adverbial | -o(t)/-t | -ot | -ad/-d | -d | -ep-o(t) | n/a | -eb-ad | -är-d | |
Finalis | -išo(t) | n/a | -isad | -išd | -ep-išo(t) | n/a | -eb-isad | -är-išd | |
Vocative | n/a | n/a | -o (/-v) | n/a | n/a | n/a | -eb-o | n/a |
Stem: ǯveš- (Min.), mǯveš- (Laz), ʒvel- (Geo.), ǯwinel- (Svan) - "old" | |||||||||
Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
Nominative | ǯveš-i | mǯveš-i | ʒvel-i | ǯwinel | ǯveš-ep-i | mǯveš-ep-e | ʒvel-eb-i | ǯwinel-är | |
Ergative | ǯveš-k | mǯveš-i-k | ʒvel-ma | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-k | mǯveš-epe-k | ʒvel-eb-ma | ǯwinel-är-d | |
Dative | ǯveš-s | mǯveš-i-s | ʒvel-s | ǯwinel-s | ǯveš-ep-s | mǯveš-i-epe-s | ʒvel-eb-s | ǯwinel-är-s | |
Genitive | ǯveš-iš | mǯveš-iš | ʒvel-is | ǯwinl-iš | ǯveš-ep-iš | mǯveš-epe-š | ʒvel-eb-is | ǯwinel-är-iš | |
Lative | ǯveš-iša | mǯveš-iša | n/a | n/a | ǯveš-ep-iša | mǯveš-epe-ša | n/a | n/a | |
Ablative | ǯveš-iše | mǯveš-iše | n/a | n/a | ǯveš-ep-iše | mǯveš-epe-še | n/a | n/a | |
Instrumental | ǯveš-it | mǯveš-ite | ʒvel-it | ǯwinel-šw | ǯveš-ep-it | mǯveš-epe-te | ʒvel-eb-it | ǯwinel-är-šw | |
Adverbial | ǯveš-o | mǯveš-ot | ʒvel-ad | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-o | n/a | ʒvel-eb-ad | ǯwinel-är-d | |
Finalis | ǯveš-išo | n/a | ʒvel-isad | ǯwinel-išd | ǯveš-ep-išo | n/a | ʒvel-eb-isad | ǯwinel-är-išd | |
Vocative | n/a | n/a | ʒvel-o | n/a | n/a | n/a | ʒvel-eb-o | n/a |
South Caucasian verbs can indicate one, two, or three grammatical persons. A performer of an action is called the subject and affected persons are objects (direct or indirect). The person may be singular or plural. According to the number of persons, the verbs are classified as unipersonal, bipersonal or tripersonal.
Unipersonal | Bipersonal | Tripersonal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
intransitive | transitive | intransitive | ditransitive | |
Subject | + | + | + | + |
Direct Object | + | + | ||
Indirect Object | + | + |
Subjects and objects are indicated with special affixes.
Subject set | |||||||||
Singular | Plural | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | ||
S1 | v- | v- | v- | xw- | v-...-t | v-...-t | v-...-t | xw-...-(š)d (excl.)
l-...-(š)d (incl.) |
|
S2 | x/h- | ∅,(h/s)- | ∅ | x-/∅ | x/h-...-t | ∅,(h/s)-...-t | ∅-...-t | x/∅-...-(š)d | |
S3 | -s,-a/o,-n,-ed | -s,-a/o | -s,-u,-n | (l)-...-s/(a) | -an,-en,-es,-ed | -en,-an,-es | -an,-es | (l)-...-x | |
Object set | |||||||||
O1 | m- | m- | m- | m- | m- (excl.)
gv- (incl.) |
gv- | m-...-t,-an,-es | n- (excl.)
gw- (incl.) |
|
O2 | g- | g- | g- | ǯ- | g- | g-...-t | g-...-t,-an,-es | ǯ-...-x | |
O3 | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅- | ∅ | ∅,x- | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅-...-t | ∅-...-t,-an,-es | ∅,x-...-x |
By means of special markers South Caucasian verbs can indicate four kinds of action intentionality ("version"):
Version | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan |
---|---|---|---|---|
Subjective | -i- | -i- | -i- | -i- |
Objective | -u- | -u- | -u- | -o- |
Objective-passive | -a- | -a- | -e- | -e- |
Neutral | -o-/-a- | -o- | -a- | -a- |
Proto-Kartv.
form |
Karto-Zan | Svan | ||||
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Proto-form | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | |||
1. one, 2. other | *s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] |
*s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] |
sxva [sxvɑ] (other) |
šxva [ʃxva] (other) |
čkva / škva [t͡ʃkvɑ] / [ʃkvɑ] (other, one more) |
e-šxu [ɛ-ʃxu] (one) |
one | n/a | *erti [ɛrti] |
erti [ɛrti] |
arti [ɑrti] |
art [ɑrt] |
n/a |
two | *yori [jɔri] |
*yori [jɔri] |
ori [ɔri] |
žiri / žəri [ʒiri] / [ʒəri] |
žur / ǯur [ʒur] / [d͡ʒur] |
yori [jɔri] |
three | *sami [sɑmi] |
*sami [sɑmi] |
sami [sɑmi] |
sumi [sumi] |
sum [sum] |
semi [sɛmi] |
four | *o(s₁)txo [ɔ(ʂ)txɔ] |
*otxo [ɔtxɔ] |
otxi [ɔtxi] |
otxi [ɔtxi] |
otxo [ɔtxɔ] |
w-oštxw [w-ɔʃtxw] |
five | *xu(s₁)ti [xu(ʂ)ti] |
*xuti [xuti] |
xuti [xuti] |
xuti [xuti] |
xut [xut] |
wo-xušd [wɔ-xuʃd] |
six | *eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] |
*eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] |
ekvsi [ɛvksi] |
amšvi [ɑmʃwi] |
anši [ɑnʃi] |
usgwa [usɡwɑ] |
seven | *šwidi [ʃwidi] |
*šwidi [ʃwidi] |
švidi [ʃvidi] |
škviti [ʃkviti] |
škvit [ʃkvit] |
i-šgwid [i-ʃɡwid] |
eight | *arwa [ɑrwɑ] |
*arwa [ɑrwɑ] |
rva [rvɑ] |
ruo / bruo [ruɔ] / [bruɔ] |
ovro [ɔvrɔ] |
ara [ɑrɑ] |
nine | *c₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] |
*c₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] |
cxra [t͡sxrɑ] |
čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] |
čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] |
čxara [t͡ʃxɑrɑ] |
ten | *a(s₁)ti [ɑ(ʂ)ti] |
*ati [ɑti] |
ati [ɑti] |
viti [viti] |
vit [vit] |
ešd [ɛʃd] |
twenty | n/a | *oc₁i [ɔt͡ʂi] |
oci [ɔt͡si] |
eči [ɛt͡ʃi] |
eči [ɛt͡ʃi] |
n/a |
hundred | *as₁i [ɑʂi] |
*as₁i [ɑʂi] |
asi [ɑsi] |
oši [ɔʃi] |
oši [ɔʃi] |
aš-ir [ɑʃ-ir] |
Personal Pronouns | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
I | *me [mɛ] |
me [mɛ] |
ma [mɑ] |
ma [mɑ] |
mi [mi] |
You (sg.) | *sen [sɛn] |
šen [ʃɛn] |
si [si] |
si [si] |
si [si] |
That | *e- [ɛ-] |
e-sa [ɛ-sɑ] |
e-na [ɛ-nɑ] |
(h)e-ya [(h)ɛ-jɑ] |
e-ǯa [ɛ-d͡ʒɑ] |
We | *čwen [t͡ʃwɛn] |
čven [t͡ʃvɛn] |
čki(n) / čkə(n) [t͡ʃki(n)] / [t͡ʃkə(n)] |
čkin / čkun [t͡ʃkin] / [t͡ʃkun] |
|
You (pl.) | *stkwen [stkwɛn] |
tkven [tkvɛn] |
tkva(n) [tkvɑ(n)] |
tkvan [tkvɑn] |
sgäy [sɡæj] |
Possessive Pronouns | |||||
Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
My | *č(w)e-mi [t͡ʃ(w)ɛ-mi] |
če-mi [t͡ʃɛ-mi] |
čki-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] |
čki-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] |
mi-šgu [mi-ʃɡu] |
Your (sg.) | *š(w)eni [ʃ(w)ɛni] |
šeni [ʃɛni] |
skani [skɑni] |
skani [skɑni] |
i-sgu [i-sɡu] |
His/her/its | *m-is₁ [m-iʂ] |
m-is-i [m-is-i] |
mu-š-i [mu-ʃ-i] |
mu-š-i [mu-ʃ-i] |
m-ič-a [m-it͡ʃ-ɑ] |
Our | *čweni [t͡ʃwɛni] |
čveni [t͡ʃvɛni] |
čkini / čkəni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkəni] |
čkini / čkuni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkuni] |
gu-šgwey (excl.) [ɡu-ʃɡwɛj] ni-šgwey (incl.) |
Your (pl.) | *stkweni [stkwɛni] |
tkveni [tkvɛni] |
tkvani [tkvɑni] |
tkvani [tkvɑni] |
i-sgwey [i-sɡwɛj] |